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Energy Efficiency in Electrical Utilities
Chapter I
Electrical Systems
1.1 Introduction
 
1.1.1 Generation
1.1.2 Transmission
1.2 Important Equipment
1.3 Electrical Symbols and SLD
1.4 Electricity Billing
1.5 Electrical Load Management and Maximum Demand Control
 
1.5.1 Maximum Demand
1.5.2 Contracted Maximum Demand (CMD)
1.5.3 Connected Load
1.6 Power Factor
 
1.6.1 Leading and Lagging Power Factor
1.6.2 Location of Power Factor Correction Capacitors
1.7 Selection of Power Factor Correction Capacitors
 
1.7.1 Performance Assessment of Power Factor Correction Capacitors
1.8 Transformer
 
1.8.1 Rating of the Transformer
1.8.2 Location of the Transformer
1.8.3 Transformer Losses and Efficiency
1.8.4 Voltage Fluctuation Control
1.8.5 Parallel Operation of Transformers
  Summing Up
  Self-assessment
 
Chapter II
Electric Motors
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Types of Motors
 
2.2.1 DC Motors
2.2.2 Synchronous Motors
2.2.3 Induction Motors
2.2.4 Slip Ring Induction Motors
2.2.5 Squirrel Cage Induction Motors
2.3 The Power Factor
2.4 Name Plate
2.5 Calculating Partial Percentage Load
2.6 Losses in the Motor and Its Efficiency
 
2.6.1 No Load Test
2.6.2 Blocked Rotor Test
2.7 Factors Affecting Motor Performance
2.8 Rewinding and Motor Replacement Issues
2.9 Energy Saving Opportunities with Energy Efficient Motors
  Summing Up
  Self-assessment
 
Chapter III
Compressed Air System
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Types of Compressors
3.3 Compressor Efficiency
3.4 Volumetric Efficiency
3.5 Efficient Operation of Compressor
3.6 Compressed Air System Components
3.7 Capacity Assessment
3.8 Actual Free Air Discharge
3.9 Leakage Test
3.10 Factors Affecting Performance and Efficiency
3.11 Load Unload Versus On/Off Control
  Summing Up
  Self-assessment
 
Chapter IV
HVAC and Refrigeration System
4.1 Introduction
 
4.1.1 Capacity Measurement
4.1.2 Air-Conditioning Systems
4.1.3 Refrigeration Systems (for processes)
4.2 Types of Refrigeration Systems
 
4.2.1 Vapour Compression Refrigeration
4.2.2 Alternative Refrigerants for Vapour Compression Systems
4.2.3 Absorption Refrigeration
4.2.4 Evaporative Cooling
4.3 Common Refrigerants and Their Properties
4.4 Compressor Types and their applications
 
4.4.1 Centrifugal Compressors
4.4.2 Reciprocating Compressors
4.4.3 Screw Compressors
4.4.4 Scroll Compressors
4.5 Selection of a Suitable Refrigeration System
4.6 Performance Assessment of Refrigeration Plants
 
4.6.1 Integrated Part Load Value (IPLV)
4.7 Factors Affecting Performance and Energy Efficiency of Refrigeration Plants
 
4.7.1 The Design of Process Heat Exchangers
4.7.2 Maintenance of Heat Exchanger Surfaces
4.7.3 Multi-staging for Efficiency
4.7.4 Matching Capacity to System Load
4.7.5 Capacity Control and Energy Efficiency
4.7.6 Multi-level Refrigeration for Plant Needs
4.7.7 Chilled Water Storage
4.7.8 System Design Features
4.8 Energy Saving Opportunities
  Summing Up
  Self-assessment
 
Chapter V
Fans and Blowers
5.1 Introduction
 
5.2.1 Difference between Fans, Blowers and Compressors
5.2 Fan Types
 
5.2.1 Fans Fall into Two General Categories: Centrifugal Flow and Axial Flow
5.2.2 Centrifugal Fan Types
5.2.3 Common Blower Types
5.3 Fan Performance Evaluation and Efficient System Operation
 
5.3.1 System Characteristics
5.3.2 Fan Characteristics
5.3.3 System Characteristics and Fan Curves
5.3.4 Fan Laws
5.4 Fan Design and Selection Criteria
 
5.4.1 Fan Performance and Efficiency
5.4.2 Safety Margin
5.4.3 Installation of the Fan
5.4.4 System Resistance Change
5.5 Flow Control Strategies
 
5.5.1 Pulley Change
5.5.2 Damper Controls
5.5.3 Variable Speed Drives
5.5.4 Series and Parallel Operation
5.6 Fan Performance Assessment
 
5.6.1 Air Flow Measurement
5.6.2 Measurements and Calculations
5.7 Air Density Calculation
 
5.7.1 Velocity Calculation
5.7.2 Volume Calculation
5.7.3 Fan Efficiency
5.8 Energy Savings Opportunities
  Summing Up
  Self-assessment
 
Chapter VI
Pumps and Pumping System
6.1 Pump Types
 
6.1.1 Centrifugal Pumps
6.1.2 Hydraulic Power, Pump Shaft Power and Electrical Input Power
6.2 System Characteristics
6.3 Pump Curves
 
6.3.1 Pump Operating Point
6.4 Factors Affecting Pump Performance
 
6.4.1 Matching Pump and System Head-flow Characteristics
6.4.2 Effect of Over Sizing the Pump
6.4.3 Energy Loss in Throttling
6.5 Efficient Pumping System Operation
 
6.5.1 Effect of Speed Variation
6.5.2 Effects of Impeller Diameter Change
6.5.3 Pump Suction Performance (NPSH)
6.6 Flow Control Strategies
 
6.6.1 Pump Control by Varying Speed
6.6.2 Pumps in Parallel Switched to Meet Demand
6.6.3 Stop/Start Control
6.6.4 Flow Control Valve
6.6.5 By-pass Control
6.7 Fixed Flow Reduction
 
6.7.1 Impeller Trimming
6.7.2 Meeting Variable Flow Reduction
6.8 Steps for Energy Efficiency in Pumping System
  Summing Up
  Self-assessment
 
Chapter VII
Cooling Tower
7.1 Introduction
 
7.1.1 Cooling Tower Types
7.1.2 Mechanical Draft Towers
7.1.3 Components of a Cooling Tower
7.1.4 Tower Materials
7.2 Cooling Tower Performance
 
7.2.1 Factors Affecting Cooling Tower Performance
7.3 A Typical Comparison Between Various Fill Media
7.4 Choosing a Cooling Tower
7.5 Efficient System Operation
 
7.5.1 Cooling Water Treatment
7.5.2 Drift Loss in the Cooling Towers
7.5.3 Cooling Tower Fans
7.5.4 Performance Assessment of Cooling Towers
7.5.5 Observations
7.5.6 Analysis
7.5.7 Comments
7.6 Flow Control Strategies
7.7 Energy Saving Opportunities in Cooling Towers
  Summing Up
  Self-assessment
 
Chapter VIII
Lighting Systems
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Basic Terms in Lighting Systems and Features
 
8.2.1 Lamps
8.2.2 Incandescent Lamps
8.2.3 Reflector Lamps
8.2.4 Gas Discharge Lamps
8.2.5 Luminaire
8.2.6 Control Gear
8.2.7 Ballast
8.2.8 Ignitors
8.2.9 Illuminance
8.2.10 Lux (lx)
8.2.11 Luminous Efficacy (lm/W)
8.2.12 Colour Rendering Index (RI)
8.3 Lamp Types and their Features
8.4 Recommended Illuminance Levels for Various Tasks / Activities / Locations
8.5 Methodology of Lighting System Energy Efficiency Study
8.6 Case Examples
 
8.6.1 Energy Efficient Replacement Options
8.7 Some Good Practices in Lighting
 
8.7.1 Installation of Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFL's) in Place of Incandescent Lamps
8.7.2 Installation of Metal Halide Lamps in Place of Mercury / Sodium Vapour Lamps
8.7.3 Installation of High Pressure Sodium Vapour (HPSV) Lamps for Applications Where Colour Rendering is  Not Critical.
8.7.4 Installation of LED Panel Indicator Lamps in Place of Filament Lamps
8.7.5 Light Distribution
8.7.6 Light Control
  Summing Up
  Self-assessment
 
Chapter IX
DG Set Systems
9.1 Introduction
 
9.1.1 The Four Stroke -Diesel Engine
9.1.2 The DG Set as a System
9.1.3 Selection Considerations
9.1.4 Diesel Engine Power Plant Developments
9.2 Selection and Installation Factors
 
9.2.1 Sizing of a Genset
9.2.2 High Speed Engine or Slow/Medium Speed Engine
9.2.3 Capacity Combinations
9.2.4 Air Cooling Vs. Water Cooling
9.2.5 Safety Features
9.2.6 Parallel Operation with Grid
9.2.7 Maximum Single Load on a DG Set
9.2.8 Unbalanced Load Effects
9.2.9 Neutral Earthing
9.2.10 Site Condition Effects on Performance Derating
9.3 Operational Factors
 
9.3.1 Load Pattern and DG Set Capacity
9.3.2 Sequencing of Loads
9.3.3 Load Pattern
9.3.4 Load Characteristics
9.4 Energy Performance Assessment of DG Sets
9.5 Energy Saving Measures for DG Sets
  Summing Up
  Self-assessment
 
Chapter X
Energy Efficient Technologies in Electrical Systems
10.1 Maximum Demand Controllers
10.2 Automatic Power Factor Controllers
 
10.2.1 Voltage Control
10.2.2 KILOVAR Control
10.2.3 Automatic Power Factor Control Relay
10.2.4 Intelligent Power Factor Controller (IPFC)
10.3 Energy Efficient Motors
 
10.3.1 The Technical Aspects of Energy Efficient Motors
10.4 Soft Starter
10.5 Variable Speed Drives
 
10.5.1 Speed Control of Induction Motors
10.5.2 The Variable Frequency Drive
10.5.3 Variable Torque Vs. Constant Torque
10.5.4 Why Variable Torque Loads Offer Greatest Energy Savings
10.5.5 Tighter Process Control with Variable Speed Drives
10.5.6 Extended Equipment Life and Reduced Maintenance
10.5.7 Eddy Current Drives
10.5.8 Slip Power Recovery Systems
10.5.9 Fluid Coupling
10.5.10 Construction
10.5.11 Operating Principle
10.5.12 Characteristics
10.6 Energy Efficient Transformers
10.7 Electronic Ballast
 
10.7.1 Role of Ballast
10.7.2 Conventional Vs. Electronic Ballasts
10.8 Energy Efficient Lighting Controls
 
10.8.1 Occupancy Sensors
10.8.2 Timed Based Control
10.8.3 Daylight Linked Control
10.8.4 Localised Switching
  Summing Up
  Self-assessment
 
 
 
 
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