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Energy Efficiency in Thermal Utilities

Chapter I

Fuels and Combustion

1.1

Introduction to Fuels

1.2

Properties of Liquid Fuels

1.2.1	Density and Specific Gravity
1.2.2	Viscosity
1.2.3	Flash Point
1.2.4	Pour Point
1.2.5	Calorific Value
1.2.6	Specific Heat
1.2.7	Sulphur Content
1.2.8	Ash Content
1.2.9	Carbon Residue
1.2.10	Water Content

1.3

Properties of Coal

1.4

Physical Properties

1.4.1	Heating Value
1.4.2	Analysis of Coal

1.5

Chemical Properties

1.5.1

Ultimate Analysis

1.6

Properties of Gaseous Fuels

1.6.1	LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas)
1.6.2	Natural Gas
1.6.3	Producer Gas
1.6.4	Coke Oven Gas

1.7

Storage Handling and Preparation of Liquid Fuels

1.7.1	Removal of Contaminants
1.7.2	Preparation of Oil for Combustion

1.8

Storage, Handling and Preparation of Coal

1.8.1	Preparation of Coal for Combustion
1.8.2	Conditioning of Coal

1.9

Principle of Combustion

1.10

Combustion of Oil

1.10.1	Oil Temperature and Viscosity
1.10.2	Stoichiometric Combustion
1.10.3	Calculation of Stoichiometric Air for Heavy Oil
1.10.4	Calculation of Theoretical Requirement of Air
1.10.5	Calculation of Theoretical CO in Flue Gas
1.10.6	Calculation of Constituents of Flue Gas with Excess Air
1.10.7	Calculation of Theoretical CO % in Dry Flue Gas by Volume

1.11

Control of Excess Air by Flue Gas Analysis

1.11.1	Carbon Monoxide
1.11.2	Fuel Oil Burners

1.12

Combustion of Coal

1.12.1

Combustion of Gaseous Fuels

1.13

Draft System

1.13.1	Mechanical Draft
1.13.2	Induced Draft
1.13.3	Forced Draft
1.13.4	Balanced Drafts

1.14

Combustion Control

Self-assessement

Summing Up

Chapter II

Boilers

2.1

Introduction

2.2

Boiler Types and Classification

2.2.1	Fire Tube Boilers
2.2.2	Stoker Fired Boilers
2.2.3	Pulverized Fuel Boiler
2.2.4	FBC Boilers

2.3

Performance Evaluation of Boilers

2.3.1	Direct Method
2.3.2	Indirect Method
2.3.3	Detailed Computation of Boiler Efficiency by Indirect Method
2.3.4	Evaporation Ratio of Boiler

2.4

Feed Water Treatment

2.4.1	Constituents of Raw Water and Boiler Feed Waters
2.4.2	Impurities Causing Deposits
2.4.3	Non-scale Forming Constituents
2.4.4	Corrosive Constituents
2.4.5	Foaming Constituents
2.4.6	Silica

2.5

Methods of Water Treatment

2.5.1	Internal Boiler Water Treatment
2.5.2	External Boiler Water Treatment

2.6

Ion-Exchange Process

2.6.1	Demineralization
2.6.2	De-aeration
2.6.3	The Mechanical De-aerator
2.6.4	Reverse Osmosis

2.7

Boiler Blowdown

2.7.1	Blowdown Losses
2.7.2	Intermittent Blowdown
2.7.3	Continuous Blowdown

2.8

Energy Conservation Opportunities

2.8.1	Stack Temperature
2.8.2	Feed Water Preheating
2.8.3	Combustion Air Pre-heat

2.9

Incomplete Combustion

2.10

Excess Air for Combustion

2.11

Radiation and Convection Heat Loss

2.12

Automatic Blowdown Control

Summing Up

Self-assessment

Chapter III

Steam Systems

3.1

Steam Properties

3.2

The Steam Distribution System and Assessment of Losses

3.2.1	Steam Pipe Sizing
3.2.2	Piping Layout and Design
3.2.3	Condensate Removal and Recovery

3.3

Types of Traps

3.3.1	Thermodynamic Traps (TD traps)
3.3.2	Float Traps
3.3.3	Inverted Bucket Trap
3.3.4	Balanced Pressure Thermostatic Traps
3.3.5	Other Steam Traps

3.4

Steam Trap Capacities

3.5

Safety Margins for Traps

3.6

Safety Margins Applied for the Process

3.7

Installation of Steam Traps

3.7.1	Drain Point
3.7.2	Pipe Sizing
3.7.3	Air Binding
3.7.4	Steam Locking

3.8

Group Trapping

3.9

Dirt

3.10

Water Hammer

3.11

Maintenance of Steam Traps

3.11.1

Steam Leakages

3.12

Condensate Recovery

3.12.1	Flash Steam Recovery
3.12.2	Losses in Steam Distribution
3.12.3	Steam Leakage Losses

3.13

Energy Loss through Insulated Flange Joints

3.14

Opportunities for Energy Saving in Steam System

3.14.1	Steam Leakage
3.14.2	Heat Loss through Thermal Insulation

3.15

Steam Trap Performance Monitoring

3.16

Providing Dry Steam for Process

3.17

Condensate Recovery

3.18

Removal of Non-condensable

Summing Up

Self-assessment

Chapter IV

Furnaces

4.1

Classification of Furnaces

4.2

Efficiency of a Furnace

4.3

Energy Source for Furnaces

4.4

Factors Affecting Fuel Economy in Various Furnaces

4.4.1	Complete Combustion with Minimum Excess Air
4.4.2	Proper Heat Distribution
4.4.3	Operating at the Required/Optimum Temperature
4.4.4	Reducing Heat Losses from Furnaces Openings
4.4.5	Control of Furnace Draft
4.4.6	Minimising Wall Losses
4.4.7	Insulation for Furnaces
4.4.8	Insulating Materials
4.4.9	Optimum Capacity Utilisation

4.5

Techniques for Heat Recovery

4.5.1	Direct Heat Recovery to the Product
4.5.2	Recuperators
4.5.3	Regenerators
4.5.4	Waste Heat Boilers
4.5.5	Making the Choice
4.5.6	Waste Heat Recovery from Furnace Flue Gases

4.6

Heat Balance of a Heating Furnace

Summing Up

Self-assessment

Chapter V

Insulation and Refractories

5.1

Introduction

5.2

Mechanism of Heat Transfer

5.3

Types of Insulation Materials

5.4

Heat Loss Calculations

5.5

Economic Thickness of Insulation

5.6

Heat Savings and Application Criteria

5.7

Refractories

5.7.1	Types of Refractories
5.7.2	Selection of Refractories
5.7.3	Insulating Refractories
5.7.4	Heat Losses from Furnace Walls

Summing Up

Self-assessment

Chapter VI

FBC Boilers

6.1

Introduction

6.2

Mechanism of Fluidised Bed Combustion

6.3

Advantages of FBC Boilers

6.3.1	Complete and Efficient Combustion
6.3.2	Fuel Diversity
6.3.3	Low Emissions
6.3.4	Favourable Ash Properties
6.3.5	Operating Flexibility
6.3.6	Low Operating Costs

6.4

Types of Fluidised Bed Combustion Boilers

6.4.1	Bubbling Fluidised Bed Combustion at Atmospheric Pressure
6.4.2	Circulating Fluidised Bed Combustion at Atmospheric Pressure
6.4.3	Pressurised Fluidised Bed Combustion

6.5

Retrofitting of the FBC System to the Conventional Boiler

Summing Up

Self-assessment

Chapter VII

Cogeneration

7.1

Introduction

7.2

The Principle of Cogeneration

7.3

Thermodynamic Cycles Used in Power Plants

7.4

Advantages of Cogeneration

7.5

Classification of Cogeneration Systems

7.5.1	Topping Cycle Plants
7.5.2	Bottoming Cycle
7.5.3	Base Electrical Load Matching
7.5.4	Base Thermal Load Matching
7.5.5	Electrical Load Matching
7.5.6	Thermal Load Matching

7.6

Emerging Technology in Cogeneration

7.7

Cogeneration Application

7.8

Important Technical Parameters for Cogeneration

7.8.1	Heat-to-power Ratio
7.8.2	Quality of Thermal Energy Needed
7.8.3	Load Patterns
7.8.4	Fuels Available
7.8.5	System Reliability

7.9

The Grid Dependent System Versus the Independent System

7.9.1	Steam Turbine Cogeneration Systems
7.9.2	Gas Turbine Cogeneration Systems
7.9.3	Reciprocating Engine Cogeneration Systems

7.10

Typical Cogeneration Performance Parameters

Summing Up

Self-assessment

Chapter VIII

Waste Heat Recovery

8.1

Introduction

8.2

Economics of Heat Recovery

8.3

Classification and Application

8.3.1	High Temperature Heat Recovery
8.3.2	Medium Temperature Heat Recovery
8.3.3	Low Temperature Heat Recovery

8.4

Benefits of Waste Heat Recovery

8.5

Commercially Available Heat Recovery Devices

8.5.1	Recuperator for Pre-heating of Combustion Air
8.5.2	Regenerators
8.5.3	Heat Wheels
8.5.4	Heat Pipes
8.5.5	Economiser
8.5.6	Waste Heat Boilers
8.5.7	Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
8.5.8	Heat Pump
8.5.9	Thermo Compressor
8.5.10	Direct Contact Heat Exchanger
8.5.11	Plate Heat Exchanger

Summing Up

Self-assessment

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